Choline
Other trackedYour intake
What each level of choline does
Approximate dose-response bands. Individual response varies — these are starting points, not prescriptions.
- Severely lowYOU ARE HERE0 mg – 182 mg
~90% of US adults are below the AI. Liver, methylation, and acetylcholine pathways are affected.
- Insufficient182 mg – 550 mg
Eggs, beef liver, lecithin, and sunflower seeds are the dietary heavy-hitters.
- Adequate550 mg – 825 mg
AI (550 mg) met. Supports phosphatidylcholine, betaine, and acetylcholine synthesis.
- Therapeutic825 mg – 1100 mg
Alpha-GPC and CDP-choline forms cross the BBB efficiently for cognitive uses.
- High1100 mg – 3500 mg
Approaching the 3500 mg UL.
- Over upper limit3500 mg – +
Fishy body odor, sweating, hypotension above the UL.
Overview
Essential nutrient (formally recognised in 1998) — required for phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin synthesis (membranes), acetylcholine synthesis (neurotransmitter), and as a methyl donor (via betaine). Roughly 90% of US adults fall short of the AI. Egg yolks are by far the most concentrated dietary source.
Functions
- ●Substrate for phosphatidylcholine (membrane phospholipid)
- ●Precursor for acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
- ●Methyl donor via betaine (homocysteine remethylation)
- ●Substrate for sphingomyelin (myelin sheath)
- ●Component of lipoprotein assembly (VLDL secretion)
Mechanism
Choline is phosphorylated to phosphocholine, then incorporated into phosphatidylcholine via the Kennedy pathway. Alternative oxidation to betaine donates a methyl group to homocysteine (BHMT enzyme) — a parallel pathway to the folate/B12 cycle. Choline acetyltransferase converts choline + acetyl-CoA to acetylcholine in cholinergic neurons. Maternal choline supports fetal neural tube and hippocampal development.
Benefits
- ●Reduces non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) risk
- ●Supports fetal brain development — maternal supplementation improves offspring cognition (USDA Choline Trial)
- ●Adequate maternal intake reduces neural tube defect risk (additive to folate)
- ●Alpha-GPC/CDP-choline modestly improves cognition in early dementia (trials mixed)
- ●Required for normal liver lipid export (deficiency → fatty liver)
Deficiency
Subclinical insufficiency is widespread. Frank deficiency causes hepatic steatosis and muscle damage — established in controlled feeding studies.
- ●Hepatic steatosis (fatty liver)
- ●Elevated ALT/AST
- ●Muscle damage (elevated CK)
- ●Cognitive deficits in offspring of choline-restricted pregnancies
- ●Possibly increased CV risk
- ●Pregnant and lactating women (AI is 450/550 mg/day)
- ●Postmenopausal women (less efficient endogenous synthesis without estrogen)
- ●PEMT polymorphism carriers (reduced endogenous synthesis)
- ●Vegans (eggs and meat are top sources)
- ●TPN without choline
Excess
UL is 3.5 g/day. Very high doses produce fishy body odour (via gut TMAO precursor), GI upset, hypotension. TMAO/CV-risk hypothesis as with carnitine.
- ●Fishy body odour (trimethylaminuria-like)
- ●Sweating, salivation
- ●Hypotension, bradycardia (very high doses)
- ●Possible TMAO elevation (CV-risk debate)
Forms
- Choline bitartrateCheap; standard multivitamin form; less brain bioavailability
- Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin)Whole-food-like; gentler GI; ~13% choline by weight
- Alpha-GPC (alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine)Crosses BBB efficiently; cognitive applications; 40% choline by weight
- CDP-choline (citicoline)Brain-bioavailable; cognitive and stroke recovery applications
- Choline chlorideStandard analytical/feed form; fishy taste; less common in supplements
Food sources
- Egg yolk · 1 large150 mg
- Beef liver (cooked) · 3 oz335 mg
- Cooked chicken breast · 3 oz75 mg
- Cooked salmon · 3 oz55 mg
- Soybeans (cooked) · 1/2 cup55 mg
- Quinoa (cooked) · 1 cup45 mg
Supplement forms
Alpha-GPC and CDP-choline (citicoline) cross the blood-brain barrier most efficiently — preferred for cognitive applications. Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) is cheaper and adequate for liver and general support. Choline bitartrate is the cheapest but less bioavailable to the brain. For pregnancy, prenatal supplements often under-deliver — check labels (most include only 50–55 mg vs the 450 mg AI).
Bioavailability
Free choline is absorbed in proximal small intestine; phosphatidylcholine is hydrolysed in gut to free choline + fatty acids before absorption. Alpha-GPC and CDP-choline are absorbed intact and cross the BBB more readily — explains their cognitive preference.
Longevity relevance
Liver and brain health are healthspan-central; adequacy is non-negotiable. Pregnancy adequacy has multi-generational neurological effects (offspring lifespan-relevant). The TMAO question keeps the high-dose supplementation case unresolved but food-sourced choline (eggs, lean animal protein) does not have the same CV-risk concern as supplemental carnitine.
Relationships
- Folate, B12, methionine · All converge on the methylation cycle; choline spares folate and vice versa
- Omega-3 (DHA) · Both essential for phospholipid synthesis; common cognitive pairing
- Vitamin B6 · Cofactor in betaine homocysteine remethylation pathway
- Methotrexate, anticholinergics · Increase choline demand or block its synaptic effects
- Estrogen withdrawal (menopause) · Reduces endogenous PEMT-mediated choline synthesis; AI need rises
References
About Choline
Acetylcholine precursor, phosphatidylcholine, methyl donor.
- Role
- Acetylcholine · liver
- Daily target
- 550 mg (DV)
- Upper limit
- 3500 mg
- Also called
- choline, choline bitartrate, alpha-gpc, alpha gpc, cdp-choline, citicoline
The mechanisms and systems this nutrient feeds. Click any to drill into what runs on it.
★ = load-bearing / primary cofactor. Track these in My Journey.
Top food sources of Choline
Whole foods that contribute meaningfully (≥10% DV per 100 g serving). Click any food to see its full nutrient profile and what else it brings to the table.